Title
Subscribe to the Magazine for free
Subscribe for free to keep reading! If you are already subscribed, enter your email address to log back in.
Thanks for subscribing!
Oops! Something went wrong while submitting the form.
Are you a healthcare practitioner?
Thanks for subscribing!
Oops! Something went wrong while submitting the form.

What Does High Bilirubin Mean? A Comprehensive Guide to Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment

Why This Was Updated?

Our specialists regularly review advancements in health and wellness, ensuring our articles are updated with the newest information as it becomes accessible.
Medically Reviewed by

Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment that is produced by the liver and excreted in bile. It is a byproduct produced when red blood cells and tissues like muscle and liver cells that contain heme are broken down. Normally, bilirubin is processed by the liver and excreted from the body. However, when the liver is unable to efficiently process bilirubin, it can accumulate in the blood, leading to elevated bilirubin levels. This condition can manifest as jaundice, where the skin and eyes may develop a yellowish tint, signifying various underlying health issues.

This article aims to provide an overview of high bilirubin levels. By exploring the causes, implications, and management strategies associated with elevated bilirubin, readers will better understand this condition and its potential impact on health.Β 

[signup]

What is Bilirubin?

Bilirubin is a pigment derived from the breakdown of red blood cells, processed primarily in the liver. It is a key component of bile, which helps in digesting fats. The liver metabolizes bilirubin, making it water-soluble and allowing it to be excreted from the body through bile and urine.

There are two main types of bilirubin:Β 

  • Direct (conjugated) bilirubin: Water-soluble and has been processed by the liver, making it ready for excretion.
  • Indirect (unconjugated) bilirubin: Not yet processed by the liver and is fat-soluble, which can lead to its accumulation in the bloodstream if not properly metabolized.Β 

Understanding these types helps in diagnosing and managing conditions related to elevated bilirubin levels.

Understanding High Bilirubin Levels

Normal total bilirubin levels in adults typically range between 0.2 and 1.3 mg per deciliter (mg/dL). Levels above this range are considered high. In infants, especially newborns, slightly higher levels may be normal, ranging between 1.0 and 12.0 mg/dL, but persistently high levels need evaluation.

Symptoms of High Bilirubin

Elevated bilirubin can result in a variety of symptoms:Β 

In Adults:

  • Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)
  • Dark-colored urine
  • Pale or clay-colored stools
  • Itching or pruritus
  • Fatigue or weakness
  • Abdominal pain or discomfort

In Infants:

  • Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)
  • Poor feeding or lethargy
  • Dark urine
  • Pale stools

Causes of High Bilirubin

High bilirubin levels can be caused by liver diseases such as hepatitis or cirrhosis, increased breakdown of red blood cells (hemolysis), and genetic conditions like Gilbert's syndrome. Each cause requires different diagnostic and treatment approaches.

Here are some common causes:

In Adults:

  • Liver Diseases: Conditions such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, or liver cancer impair bilirubin processing and excretion.
  • Hemolysis: Increased breakdown of red blood cells, often due to autoimmune disorders or certain medications, raises bilirubin levels.
  • Gallstones: Blockage in the bile ducts from gallstones can prevent bilirubin from being properly excreted.
  • Genetic Conditions: Disorders like Gilbert's syndrome affect bilirubin metabolism but are usually benign.

In Infants:

  • Neonatal Jaundice: Common in newborns due to immature liver function; usually resolves with time or light therapy.
  • Breastfeeding Jaundice: Caused by inadequate feeding leading to dehydration and increased bilirubin levels.
  • Hemolytic Disease: Conditions such as Rh or ABO incompatibility can cause excessive breakdown of red blood cells.
  • Infections: Certain infections or liver diseases, such as sepsis, urinary tract infections, viral infections, or congenital hepatitis, in newborns can elevate bilirubin levels.some text
    • Sepsis: A serious bloodstream infection that can cause widespread inflammation and damage to various organs, including the liver, leading to jaundice.
    • Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs): Bacterial infections in the urinary system can sometimes lead to jaundice in newborns.
    • Congenital Infections: Infections present at birth, such as cytomegalovirus (CMV), rubella, or toxoplasmosis, can affect liver function and cause jaundice.
    • Congenital Hepatitis: Viral hepatitis acquired from the mother during pregnancy or delivery, such as hepatitis B or C, can cause liver inflammation and jaundice.

Lab Tests for High Bilirubin

Lab tests are essential for diagnosing and understanding high bilirubin levels. They help identify the underlying cause and guide appropriate treatment.

  • Total Bilirubin Test: This test measures the overall amount of bilirubin in the blood, including both direct and indirect types. It is significant for assessing overall bilirubin levels and determining if they are elevated.
  • Direct and Indirect Bilirubin Tests: These tests specifically measure the amounts of direct (conjugated) and indirect (unconjugated) bilirubin. Direct bilirubin is processed by the liver, while indirect bilirubin has not yet been processed. Abnormal levels can indicate issues with liver function or red blood cell breakdown.
  • AST and ALT Levels: These are liver enzymes that can be measured alongside bilirubin levels. Elevated AST (aspartate aminotransferase) and ALT (alanine aminotransferase) levels often indicate liver inflammation or damage, contributing to high bilirubin levels.

Additional Testing and Related Biomarkers

Various diagnostic tests are crucial for pinpointing the causes of high bilirubin levels and guiding effective treatment.

  • Liver Function Tests (LFTs): LFTs are blood tests measuring various enzymes and proteins to assess liver health. Elevated levels of enzymes like AST and ALT, along with altered levels of proteins such as albumin, can indicate liver dysfunction or damage, which may be causing high bilirubin levels.
  • Complete Blood Count (CBC): A CBC measures red and white blood cells, hemoglobin, and other components. It helps identify conditions such as hemolysis (increased breakdown of red blood cells) or anemia, which can contribute to elevated bilirubin levels.
  • Imaging Studies: Ultrasound or CT scans of the liver and bile ducts are used to visualize structural issues. These imaging studies can detect blockages, tumors, or other abnormalities that might be causing high bilirubin levels.

High Bilirubin in Specific Populations

High bilirubin levels can vary in their causes and implications depending on the age group.

Adults

In adults, high bilirubin often results from:

Symptoms typically include jaundice, dark urine, and abdominal discomfort. Treatment focuses on addressing the underlying condition, which may involve medications, lifestyle changes, or procedures to remove obstructions.

Newborns and Babies

Newborns commonly experience physiological jaundice due to immature liver function, which is more common in premature newborns born before 38 weeks' gestation. While this is usually benign and resolves with time or light therapy, severe or prolonged jaundice can lead to kernicterus, a rare but serious condition affecting brain development. Treatment may include phototherapy or exchange transfusion to lower bilirubin levels.

Teenagers

In teenagers, high bilirubin can be linked to conditions such as Gilbert's syndrome or liver infections. Symptoms and treatments are similar to those in adults but may also include managing stress or lifestyle factors that can exacerbate the condition. Monitoring and supportive care are often effective in managing elevated bilirubin.

Treatment Options for High Bilirubin

Managing high bilirubin levels involves a combination of lifestyle changes, medications, and, in some cases, emergency interventions.

Lifestyle and Dietary Changes

  • Adopt a balanced anti-inflammatory diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and lean proteins to support liver health.Β 
  • Reduce alcohol consumption and avoid substances that can harm the liver.Β 
  • Stay hydrated; aim for at least 8-10 glasses of water daily and incorporate water-rich foods like cucumbers, watermelon, and oranges to support hydration.
  • Maintain a healthy weight through regular exercise.

Medications and Procedures

  • Common medications include those that target the underlying cause, such as antiviral drugs for hepatitis or medications to manage autoimmune diseases.Β 
  • Phototherapy is often used for newborns with jaundice.
  • In severe cases, an exchange transfusion (removal of an infant’s blood with high bilirubin levels and/or antibody-coated RBC and replacement with fresh donor blood) may be necessary to reduce bilirubin levels rapidly.

Treatment in Adults vs. Babies

In adults, treatment focuses on addressing the underlying liver disease, managing hemolysis, or resolving bile duct obstructions. For babies, treatment typically involves phototherapy or, in more severe cases, exchange transfusion to prevent complications like kernicterus.

Emergencies

High bilirubin can become life-threatening if it involves acute liver failure or severe hemolysis. Immediate medical attention is required if symptoms such as extreme jaundice, confusion, or significant abdominal pain occur, as these can indicate serious complications needing urgent intervention.

[signup]

Key Takeaways

  • Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment from red blood cell breakdown, processed by the liver.
  • Direct (conjugated) bilirubin, processed by the liver and water-soluble.Β  Its elevation can indicate liver or bile duct issues if elevated.Β 
  • Indirect (unconjugated) bilirubin, which is not yet processed by the liver and is fat-soluble.Β  Its ev can suggest increased red blood cell breakdown or liver dysfunction if elevated.Β 
  • Bilirubin exceeding normal levels (0.1-1.2 mg/dL in adults) can present with symptoms of yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes (jaundice), dark urine, pale stools, itching, and fatigue.
  • Elevated bilirubin can be caused by liver diseases, hemolysis, genetic conditions, and neonatal jaundice.
  • Total bilirubin, direct and indirect bilirubin, LFTs, CBC, and imaging studies like liver ultrasounds can help diagnose the underlying cause of elevated bilirubin.
  • Lifestyle changes, medications, phototherapy for newborns, and emergency interventions for severe cases can help to manage elevated bilirubin.
  • Seek medical care if experiencing jaundice, dark urine, or severe abdominal pain.
  • Regular check-ups and blood tests are needed to track bilirubin levels, especially if diagnosed with liver or blood disorders.
  • Personalized medical advice is essential for effective management and treatment of high bilirubin levels.

Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment that is produced by the liver and excreted in bile. It is a byproduct produced when red blood cells and tissues like muscle and liver cells that contain heme are broken down. Normally, bilirubin is processed by the liver and excreted from the body. However, when the liver is unable to efficiently process bilirubin, it can accumulate in the blood, leading to elevated bilirubin levels. This condition can manifest as jaundice, where the skin and eyes may develop a yellowish tint, which may indicate various underlying health issues.

This article aims to provide an overview of high bilirubin levels. By exploring the causes, implications, and management strategies associated with elevated bilirubin, readers will better understand this condition and its potential impact on health.Β 

[signup]

What is Bilirubin?

Bilirubin is a pigment derived from the breakdown of red blood cells, processed primarily in the liver. It is a key component of bile, which helps in digesting fats. The liver metabolizes bilirubin, making it water-soluble and allowing it to be excreted from the body through bile and urine.

There are two main types of bilirubin:Β 

  • Direct (conjugated) bilirubin: Water-soluble and has been processed by the liver, making it ready for excretion.
  • Indirect (unconjugated) bilirubin: Not yet processed by the liver and is fat-soluble, which can lead to its accumulation in the bloodstream if not properly metabolized.Β 

Understanding these types helps in diagnosing and managing conditions related to elevated bilirubin levels.

Understanding High Bilirubin Levels

Normal total bilirubin levels in adults typically range between 0.2 and 1.3 mg per deciliter (mg/dL). Levels above this range are considered high. In infants, especially newborns, slightly higher levels may be normal, ranging between 1.0 and 12.0 mg/dL, but persistently high levels need evaluation.

Symptoms of High Bilirubin

Elevated bilirubin can result in a variety of symptoms:Β 

In Adults:

  • Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)
  • Dark-colored urine
  • Pale or clay-colored stools
  • Itching or pruritus
  • Fatigue or weakness
  • Abdominal pain or discomfort

In Infants:

  • Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)
  • Poor feeding or lethargy
  • Dark urine
  • Pale stools

Causes of High Bilirubin

High bilirubin levels can be associated with liver conditions such as hepatitis or cirrhosis, increased breakdown of red blood cells (hemolysis), and genetic conditions like Gilbert's syndrome. Each cause requires different diagnostic and management approaches.

Here are some common causes:

In Adults:

  • Liver Conditions: Conditions such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, or liver cancer may affect bilirubin processing and excretion.
  • Hemolysis: Increased breakdown of red blood cells, often due to autoimmune disorders or certain medications, can raise bilirubin levels.
  • Gallstones: Blockage in the bile ducts from gallstones can prevent bilirubin from being properly excreted.
  • Genetic Conditions: Disorders like Gilbert's syndrome affect bilirubin metabolism but are usually benign.

In Infants:

  • Neonatal Jaundice: Common in newborns due to immature liver function; usually resolves with time or light therapy.
  • Breastfeeding Jaundice: Caused by inadequate feeding leading to dehydration and increased bilirubin levels.
  • Hemolytic Disease: Conditions such as Rh or ABO incompatibility can cause excessive breakdown of red blood cells.
  • Infections: Certain infections or liver conditions, such as sepsis, urinary tract infections, viral infections, or congenital hepatitis, in newborns can elevate bilirubin levels.
    • Sepsis: A serious bloodstream infection that can cause widespread inflammation and affect various organs, including the liver, potentially leading to jaundice.
    • Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs): Bacterial infections in the urinary system can sometimes lead to jaundice in newborns.
    • Congenital Infections: Infections present at birth, such as cytomegalovirus (CMV), rubella, or toxoplasmosis, can affect liver function and cause jaundice.
    • Congenital Hepatitis: Viral hepatitis acquired from the mother during pregnancy or delivery, such as hepatitis B or C, can cause liver inflammation and jaundice.

Lab Tests for High Bilirubin

Lab tests are essential for diagnosing and understanding high bilirubin levels. They help identify the underlying cause and guide appropriate management.

  • Total Bilirubin Test: This test measures the overall amount of bilirubin in the blood, including both direct and indirect types. It is significant for assessing overall bilirubin levels and determining if they are elevated.
  • Direct and Indirect Bilirubin Tests: These tests specifically measure the amounts of direct (conjugated) and indirect (unconjugated) bilirubin. Direct bilirubin is processed by the liver, while indirect bilirubin has not yet been processed. Abnormal levels can indicate issues with liver function or red blood cell breakdown.
  • AST and ALT Levels: These are liver enzymes that can be measured alongside bilirubin levels. Elevated AST (aspartate aminotransferase) and ALT (alanine aminotransferase) levels often indicate liver inflammation or damage, contributing to high bilirubin levels.

Additional Testing and Related Biomarkers

Various diagnostic tests are crucial for pinpointing the causes of high bilirubin levels and guiding effective management.

  • Liver Function Tests (LFTs): LFTs are blood tests measuring various enzymes and proteins to assess liver health. Elevated levels of enzymes like AST and ALT, along with altered levels of proteins such as albumin, can indicate liver dysfunction or damage, which may be causing high bilirubin levels.
  • Complete Blood Count (CBC): A CBC measures red and white blood cells, hemoglobin, and other components. It helps identify conditions such as hemolysis (increased breakdown of red blood cells) or anemia, which can contribute to elevated bilirubin levels.
  • Imaging Studies: Ultrasound or CT scans of the liver and bile ducts are used to visualize structural issues. These imaging studies can detect blockages, tumors, or other abnormalities that might be causing high bilirubin levels.

High Bilirubin in Specific Populations

High bilirubin levels can vary in their causes and implications depending on the age group.

Adults

In adults, high bilirubin often results from:

Symptoms typically include jaundice, dark urine, and abdominal discomfort. Management focuses on addressing the underlying condition, which may involve medications, lifestyle changes, or procedures to remove obstructions.

Newborns and Babies

Newborns commonly experience physiological jaundice due to immature liver function, which is more common in premature newborns born before 38 weeks' gestation. While this is usually benign and resolves with time or light therapy, severe or prolonged jaundice can lead to kernicterus, a rare but serious condition affecting brain development. Management may include phototherapy or exchange transfusion to lower bilirubin levels.

Teenagers

In teenagers, high bilirubin can be linked to conditions such as Gilbert's syndrome or liver infections. Symptoms and management strategies are similar to those in adults but may also include managing stress or lifestyle factors that can exacerbate the condition. Monitoring and supportive care are often effective in managing elevated bilirubin.

Management Options for High Bilirubin

Managing high bilirubin levels involves a combination of lifestyle changes, medications, and, in some cases, emergency interventions.

Lifestyle and Dietary Changes

  • Consider adopting a balanced anti-inflammatory diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and lean proteins to support liver health.Β 
  • Reducing alcohol consumption and avoiding substances that can harm the liver may be beneficial.Β 
  • Staying hydrated is important; aim for at least 8-10 glasses of water daily and incorporate water-rich foods like cucumbers, watermelon, and oranges to support hydration.
  • Maintaining a healthy weight through regular exercise can be helpful.

Medications and Procedures

  • Common medications may include those that target the underlying cause, such as antiviral drugs for hepatitis or medications to manage autoimmune conditions.Β 
  • Phototherapy is often used for newborns with jaundice.
  • In severe cases, an exchange transfusion (removal of an infant’s blood with high bilirubin levels and/or antibody-coated RBC and replacement with fresh donor blood) may be necessary to reduce bilirubin levels rapidly.

Management in Adults vs. Babies

In adults, management focuses on addressing the underlying liver condition, managing hemolysis, or resolving bile duct obstructions. For babies, management typically involves phototherapy or, in more severe cases, exchange transfusion to prevent complications like kernicterus.

Emergencies

High bilirubin can become life-threatening if it involves acute liver failure or severe hemolysis. Immediate medical attention is required if symptoms such as extreme jaundice, confusion, or significant abdominal pain occur, as these can indicate serious complications needing urgent intervention.

[signup]

Key Takeaways

  • Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment from red blood cell breakdown, processed by the liver.
  • Direct (conjugated) bilirubin, processed by the liver and water-soluble. Its elevation can indicate liver or bile duct issues if elevated.Β 
  • Indirect (unconjugated) bilirubin, which is not yet processed by the liver and is fat-soluble. Its elevation can suggest increased red blood cell breakdown or liver dysfunction if elevated.Β 
  • Bilirubin exceeding normal levels (0.1-1.2 mg/dL in adults) can present with symptoms of yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes (jaundice), dark urine, pale stools, itching, and fatigue.
  • Elevated bilirubin can be associated with liver conditions, hemolysis, genetic conditions, and neonatal jaundice.
  • Total bilirubin, direct and indirect bilirubin, LFTs, CBC, and imaging studies like liver ultrasounds can help identify the underlying cause of elevated bilirubin.
  • Lifestyle changes, medications, phototherapy for newborns, and emergency interventions for severe cases can help to manage elevated bilirubin.
  • Seek medical care if experiencing jaundice, dark urine, or severe abdominal pain.
  • Regular check-ups and blood tests are needed to track bilirubin levels, especially if diagnosed with liver or blood conditions.
  • Personalized medical advice is essential for effective management and understanding of high bilirubin levels.
The information provided is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice. Always consult with your doctor or other qualified healthcare provider before taking any dietary supplement or making any changes to your diet or exercise routine.
Learn More
No items found.

Lab Tests in This Article

No lab tests!

Abolurin, O. O., Senbanjo, I. O., Adekoya, A. O., & Ajibola, E. D. (2020). Congenital cytomegalovirus infection as an important cause of infantile cholestatic jaundice: a case report. Pan African Medical Journal, 36. https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2020.36.106.20577

Anand Singh, & Ishwarlal Jialal. (2019, November 6). Unconjugated Hyperbilirubinemia. Nih.gov; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549796/

Ansong-Assoku, B., & Ankola, P. A. (2023). Neonatal Jaundice. Nih.gov; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532930/

Blake, K. (2023, May 22). Anti Inflammatory Diet 101: What to Eat and Avoid Plus Specialty Labs To Monitor Results. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/post/anti-inflammatory-diet

Bratton, S., Cantu, R. M., & Stern, M. (2023, January 17). Breast Milk Jaundice. PubMed; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537334/

Chen, I., Hsu, L.-S., Yao, C.-S., Chang, J.-T., Wang, H.-P., & Fang, N.-W. (2024). Risk factors for urinary tract infection in infants with unexplained hyperbilirubinemia: a single center case-control study. Frontiers in Pediatrics, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2024.1332052

Chien, R.-N., & Liaw, Y.-F. (2022). Current Trend in Antiviral Therapy for Chronic Hepatitis B. Viruses, 14(2), 434. https://doi.org/10.3390/v14020434

Cleveland Clinic. (2018, June 14). Bilirubin Test: Test Details & Results. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diagnostics/17845-bilirubin

Cleveland Clinic. (2021). Gilbert’s Syndrome: Symptoms, Causes, Tests & Treatment. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17661-gilberts-syndrome

Cleveland Clinic. (2022). Hemolysis: Types, causes & symptoms. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/24108-hemolysis

Cleveland Clinic. (2024, March 14). What Is jaundice? Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/15367-adult-jaundice

Cloyd, J. (2023a, March 8). Bile Acids 101: Testing, Interpreting, Treatment. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/post/stool-bile-acids-101

Cloyd, J. (2023b, March 29). 10 Differential Diagnosis for Fatigue: Testing & Integrative Treatment Recommendations. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/post/10-differential-diagnosis-for-fatigue

Cloyd, J. (2023c, July 3). The Importance of Comprehensive Stool Testing in Functional Medicine. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/post/the-importance-of-comprehensive-stool-testing-in-functional-medicine

Cloyd, J. (2023d, September 8). Top Labs To Run Bi-Annually On Your Patients Who Suffer From Hepatitis. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/post/top-labs-to-run-bi-annually-on-your-patients-who-suffer-from-hepatitis

Cloyd, J. (2023e, October 2). A Functional Medicine Approach to Stress Management. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/post/a-functional-medicine-approach-to-stress-management

Cloyd, J. (2024a, January 8). The Science of Hydration: How Water Intake Affects Overall Health. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/post/the-science-of-hydration-how-water-intake-affects-overall-health

Cloyd, J. (2024b, January 22). Interpreting Liver Enzyme Tests: ALT, AST, and ALP in Liver Health Monitoring. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/post/interpreting-liver-enzyme-tests-alt-ast-and-alp-in-liver-health-monitoring

Dean, L. (2005). Hemolytic disease of the newborn. Nih.gov; National Center for Biotechnology Information (US). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2266/

Diorio, B. (2023, January 17). Why Most Functional Medicine Practitioners Say No To Alcohol. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/post/why-most-functional-medicine-practitioners-say-no-to-alcohol

Hundt, M., Basit, H., & John, S. (2019, May 5). Physiology, Bile Secretion. Nih.gov; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470209/

Joseph, A., & Samant, H. (2023, February 12). Jaundice. PubMed; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544252/

Kalakonda, A., John, S., & Jenkins, B. A. (2022, September 12). Physiology, Bilirubin. Nih.gov; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470290/

Maisels, M. J., & Kring, E. (1992). Risk of sepsis in newborns with severe hyperbilirubinemia. Pediatrics, 90(5), 741–743. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1408547/Moore, A. (2021). Immunosuppressive Meds for Autoimmune Treatment. Aaaai.org. https://www.aaaai.org/Conditions-Treatments/Related-Conditions/immunosuppressive

Mawson, A. R., & Croft, A. M. (2019). Rubella Virus Infection, the Congenital Rubella Syndrome, and the Link to Autism. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(19). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16193543

Mayo Clinic. (n.d.). Infant jaundice-Infant jaundice - Symptoms & causes. Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/infant-jaundice/symptoms-causes/syc-20373865#

Okulu, E. (2020). Exchange transfusion for neonatal hyperbilirubinemia: A multicenter, prospective study of Turkish Neonatal Society. Türk Pediatri Arşivi. https://doi.org/10.14744/turkpediatriars.2020.65983

Porter, M. L., & Dennis, B. L. (2002). Hyperbilirubinemia in the Term Newborn. American Family Physician, 65(4), 599–607. https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2002/0215/p599.html/1000

Preston, J. (2022, November 10). What’s The Difference Between Good And Bad Dietary Fat? Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/post/dietary-fat-the-good-the-bad-and-the-misunderstood

Reddy, D. K., & Pandey, S. (2024). Kernicterus. PubMed; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559120

Roberts, E. A. (2003). Neonatal hepatitis syndrome. Seminars in Neonatology, 8(5), 357–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1084-2756(03)00093-9

Rupa Health. (n.d.-a). Alanine Aminotransferase. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/biomarkers/alt

Rupa Health. (n.d.-b). Albumin. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/biomarkers/albumin

Rupa Health. (n.d.-c). Aspartate Aminotransferase. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/biomarkers/ast

Rupa Health. (n.d.-d). Direct Bilirubin. Rupa Health. Retrieved July 24, 2024, from https://www.rupahealth.com/biomarkers/direct-bilirubin

Rupa Health. (n.d.-e). Total Bilirubin. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/biomarkers/total-bilirubin

Rupa Health. (2020). Comprehensive Guide to the CBC w/ diff. & platelets . Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/labs/comprehensive-guide-to-the-cbc-w-diff-platelets

Shah, I., Bhatnagar, S., & Mohanty, S. (2012). Neonatal Hepatitis with Toxoplasmosis. Journal of Clinical Neonatology, 1(2), 96. https://doi.org/10.4103/2249-4847.96772

Shah, N. J., Royer, A., & John, S. (2023, April 7). Acute Liver Failure. PubMed; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482374/

Skoczylas, K., & PaweΕ‚as, A. (2015). Ultrasound Imaging of the Liver and Bile Ducts – Expectations of a Clinician. Journal of Ultrasonography, 15(62), 292–306. https://doi.org/10.15557/jou.2015.0026

Sullivan, J. I., & Rockey, D. C. (2017). Diagnosis and evaluation of hyperbilirubinemia. Current Opinion in Gastroenterology, 33(3), 164–170. https://doi.org/10.1097/mog.0000000000000354

Sweetnich, J. (2023, May 19). Overview of The Liver 101: Top Conditions, Specialty Testing, and Integrative Medicine Treatment Options. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/post/overview-liver-101-top-conditions-and-testing

Teeter, L. A. (2023, April 4). Functional Nutrition Strategies For Weight Management and Metabolic Health. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/post/functional-nutrition-strategies-for-weight-management-and-metabolic-health

University of Rochester Medical Center. (2019). CT Scan of the Liver and Biliary Tract - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center. Rochester.edu. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?contenttypeid=92&contentid=P07691

Weinberg, J. L. (2022, August 9). These Lifestyle Choices Increase Your Risk Of Gallstones. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/post/natural-treatment-for-gallstones-and-gallstone-prevention

Woodgate, P., & Jardine, L. A. (2015). Neonatal jaundice: phototherapy. BMJ Clinical Evidence, 2015(0319). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4440981/

Yoshimura, H. (2023a, October 16). An Integrative Approach to Liver Cirrhosis Management. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/post/an-integrative-approach-to-liver-cirrhosis-management

Yoshimura, H. (2023b, October 23). How to Support Your Liver Health With Nutritional Interventions in Functional Medicine. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/post/nutritional-interventions-in-functional-medicine-for-liver-support

Yoshimura, H. (2023c, November 7). The remarkable power of exercise on our health: A comprehensive overview. Rupa Health. https://www.rupahealth.com/post/the-remarkable-power-of-exercise-on-our-health-a-comprehensive-overview

Subscribe to the Magazine for free to keep reading!
Subscribe for free to keep reading, If you are already subscribed, enter your email address to log back in.
Thanks for subscribing!
Oops! Something went wrong while submitting the form.
Are you a healthcare practitioner?
Thanks for subscribing!
Oops! Something went wrong while submitting the form.
See All Magazine Articles
Trusted Source
The Journal of Pediatrics
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
CDC
Government Authority
Visit Source
Office of Dietary Supplements
Government Authority
Visit Source
National Heart Lung and Blood Institute
Government Authority
Visit Source
National Institutes of Health
Government Authority
Visit Source
Clinical Infectious Diseases
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
Brain
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
The Journal of Rheumatology
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
Journal of the National Cancer Institute (JNCI)
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
Journal of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
Hepatology
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
Kidney International
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
Annals of Surgery
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
Chest
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
The Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
Blood
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
Gastroenterology
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
The American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
The American Journal of Psychiatry
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
Diabetes Care
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
The Journal of the American College of Cardiology (JACC)
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
The Journal of Clinical Oncology (JCO)
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
Journal of Clinical Investigation (JCI)
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
Circulation
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
JAMA Internal Medicine
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
PLOS Medicine
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
Annals of Internal Medicine
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
Nature Medicine
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
The BMJ (British Medical Journal)
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
The Lancet
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA)
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
Pubmed
Comprehensive biomedical database
Visit Source
Harvard
Educational/Medical Institution
Visit Source
Cleveland Clinic
Educational/Medical Institution
Visit Source
Mayo Clinic
Educational/Medical Institution
Visit Source
The New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM)
Peer Reviewed Journal
Visit Source
Johns Hopkins
Educational/Medical Institution
Visit Source